Zerubavel, E. (1979) Patterns of Time in Hospital Life, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. At the same Writing ethnography 197 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 41EEE time, successful ethnographies are not overburdened with the repetitious rehearsal of incidents and illustrations. . and Atkinson, P.A. Ball, M.S. Equally important, in the championing of new approaches, there has been a failure, often, to recognize the difficulty and complexity of the methodological issues that face ethnographers, along with other social scientists. As Crow et al. At the exact designated time the man located a bed marked with that number, one that held at its foot a similarlynumbered basket. This foundation could be sense data, as in traditional empiricism, or it may be the realm of the publicly observable: for example, the movement of physical objects, such as mercury in a thermometer, which can be easily agreed upon by all observers. are often major considerations in narrowing down the selection.3 Sampson and Thomas (2003) provide a variation on this theme from their ethnographic work on board ships. Here stage props and items of personal front can be stored in a kind of compact collapsing of whole repertoires of actions and characters. The collection and display of objects is an important feature of mundane home cultures, for instance. A few years back those youths would have struck me as another variant group that likely had engrossing experiences to relate. If the research is covert, then note-taking in the course of participation will often be practically impossible. Furthermore, some packages also provide for combining quantitative and qualitative data. On the one hand, their incomes may have 10 For an interesting discussion of the difficulties involved in cultural differences in ethical judgements, see Shweder (2003). She was impressed by the lawyer and shifted her case to him. . It had made him horny and he wondered if it had made me horny? The process of analysis 185 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 41EEE on various grounds. The question of how theoretical ideas are generated belongs to the former and is outside the realm of scientific method. 41 feminism 2, 13, 14, 217; critique of malestream writing 203; documentary sources 124; self-disclosure 72 Festinger, L. 21, 57 fiction 125, 192, 204 field relations 6396; ethical issues 214; impression management 6673; marginality 869; personal characteristics of researcher 739; strains and stresses 8994; termination of fieldwork 946 field roles 7986, 96 Fielding, N.G. How is the new membership working problems? . The ethnographer needs to be intellectually poised between familiarity and strangeness; and, in overt participant observation, socially he or she will usually be poised between stranger and friend (Powdermaker 1966; Everhart 1977). Much as quantitative researchers seek to minimize reactivity through standardization, under the influence of naturalism ethnographers sometimes regard any effects of their presence or actions on the data simply as a source of bias. and Engels, J.D. We must also express our thanks to Meryl Baker, Stella Riches, Myrtle Robins, Lilian Walsh, Aileen Lodge, and June Evison for typing various drafts of the manuscript. The information produced by Condominas does not seem to have been directly implicated in the South Vietnamese armys destruction of Sar Luk, but it is clear that the publication of information about this village had at least potentially deadly consequences for the people living there, even though Condominas may not reasonably have been able to anticipate this (see Barnes 1979: 1556). In the case of Wolf s (1991) research on outlaw bikers, it was important not only that he looked like a biker shoulder-length hair and a heavy beard, leather jacket and studded leather wrist bands, a cut-off denim jacket with appropriate patches, etc. And the consequences of being discovered to be a researcher could in some cases be dire, as for example in Scheper-Hughess (2004) covert investigation of illegal trade in body organs. However, in the tense setting of a quickly convened trial, there was no way to explain my intentions or try to reconcile them with my expressed belief in learning magic. Rather, they reflect the shifting constitutive role of language. Consequently the text is busy and has a variegated texture. (2002), van den Hoonard (2002), Christians (2005), Farrell (2005). 29, 745, 923 Warwick, D.P. Everybody there knew what I was doing. Normally about six children were involved at any one time and the total number of children involved during the year was thirteen. . Stimson, G.V. 3.59. The authors argue that ethnography is best understood as a reflexive process. There are also the challenging cases of virtual or digital ethnography, whose data may be restricted to what is online or available through digital devices (Hine 2000, 2015; Horst and Miller 2012; Lupton 2014; Pink et al. An example is Walford and Millers study of Kingshurst School, the first City Technology College in Britain, established as part of the educational reforms of the late 1980s (Walford 1991; Walford and Miller 1991). And, often, the process of analysis involves, simultaneously, the development of a set of analytic categories that capture relevant aspects of these data, and the assignment of particular items of data to those categories. Hammersley, M. (1992) Whats Wrong with Ethnography?, London: Routledge. The making of fieldnotes has been part of the invisible oral tradition of craft knowledge, and many who embark on their first project have to find their own way of doing things. At the same time, the insider/outsider distinction does capture something important about the different sorts of roles that ethnographers can play in the field, and the perspectives associated with them. Early on, the contrast was with statistical method in the form of experimental and, especially, survey research and this continues today. 81, 189 Chambliss, W. 556 Chandler, J. This arises both because universities increasingly police research done by their employees, and because the requirements associated with gaining access for research purposes to some settings or informants (particularly in the health field) demand compliance with local ethics committee procedures.3 Approaching the field Access is not simply a matter of physical presence or absence. Second, such personal and subjective responses will inevitably influence ones choice of what is noteworthy, what is regarded as strange and problematic, and what appears to be mundane and obvious. Dumbo (of course) is Walt Disneys flying elephant, well known to children who watch television and read childrens books as an animal that flies. 91 expectations 601, 64 experimental method 185, 234 expert model 60, 82 exploitation 21718, 224 familiarity 812, 912, 231 Farrell, J. . At the same time, the ethnographer will generally try to shape the nature of his or her role, not least through adaptation of dress and demeanour, in order to facilitate gaining the necessary data. Knox, C. (2001) Establishing research legitimacy in the contested political ground of contemporary Northern Ireland, Qualitative Research, 1, 2: 20522. 182 The process of analysis The value of respondent validation lies in the fact that the participants involved in the events documented in the data may have access to additional knowledge of the context of other relevant events, of temporal framework, of others ulterior motives, for example that is not available to the ethnographer. Breadcrumbs Section. The nature of the referrals and emergency presentations would vary too. And what drives these differences between participant and analytic understandings is that ethnographers are usually trying to understand peoples actions, and the social institutions in which these are implicated, in such a way as to contribute to academic knowledge about the social world, rather than to further the practical enterprises in which the people they study, or others, are involved.1 The tension between participant and analytic perspectives is highlighted if we think of the ethnographer as simultaneously concerned to make the strange familiar, so as to understand it, and to make the familiar strange, so as to avoid misunderstanding it. 203 Sheridan, D. 126 Shils, E. 219, 221 ships 30, 41, 50 shyness 138 Simmel, G. 36 Simons, Helen 11112 single study model 1856 situated vocabularies 145 situational analysis 167 Sjoberg, G. 123 Skipper, J.K. 11516 Skolnick, J. Many ethnographic texts combine these organizing principles. Furthermore, over the years, ethnography has been influenced by a range of theoretical ideas: anthropological and sociological functionalism, philosophical pragmatism and symbolic interactionism, Marxism, phenomenology, hermeneutics, structuralism, feminism, constructionism, post-structuralism, postmodernism, and (most recently) the ontological turn in anthropology and new materialisms (Henare et al. One reason for this is that what one finds is so obvious, it may be necessary to fight familiarity (Delamont and Atkinson 1995). We need, therefore, to examine talk for its speech-act functions. Still nude, he then had to parade in front of the other hundred and nine men, carrying his clothing . Private response should be transformed, by reflection and analysis, into potential public knowledge. 5). There may even be a strong element of wish-fulfilment involved. Our aim here is not to try to produce a definitive map of ethnographic styles, nor to suggest that each ethnography should be located within one or other genre. For instance, in organizational settings, we can document typical patterns of work, typical problems and typical solutions, characteristic strategies, and so on. and Bright, M. (1957) The tandem interview: a trial of the two-interviewer team, Public Opinion Quarterly, 21, 2: 30412. From this point of view, a science 17 For discussions of the implications of Foucaults work for ethnography, see Gubrium and Silverman (1989); Kendall and Wickham (2004). Problems vary in their degree of abstractness. What is appropriate and inappropriate depends upon the context to a large extent, and sometimes actions that are motivated by genuine ethical ideals can cause severe problems, not just for researchers but for the people they are studying as well. 9781351380966 (PDF ebook) [Invalid] Over the next year the membership of MID changed gradually, but I always attempted to balance it by having members of a range of groups. Furthermore, the relationships established with such people can have important consequences for the subsequent course of the research. This may save considerable time, but it risks relevant material being overlooked especially since what will be judged relevant will 2 Disposable film cameras are a good means for generating images here, though what they produce is less easy to store and manage than digital photographs. Thus, for example, in a study of the effects of various kinds of external assessment on secondary school teaching, it was particular courses within the school that constituted the cases under investigation rather than the school as a whole (Scarth and Hammersley 1988). The most famous of such sponsors in the field is undoubtedly Doc, who helped in Whytes study of corner boys (Whyte 1981). Doubts have been raised about the capacity of ethnography to portray the social world in the way that naturalism claims it does. I could not force myself to wear skirts as any proper Indonesian woman does, except very occasionally. And, while they will usually have in mind what the anthropologist Malinowski often regarded as the inventor of modern anthropological fieldwork called foreshadowed problems, their orientation is an exploratory one. (Routledge, London, 1995.) For example, deception is often proscribed, and the establishment of fully informed consent with participants insisted on. What is distinctive is that ethnography involves a more deliberate and systematic approach than is common for most of us most of the time, one in which data are sought specifically to illuminate research questions, and are carefully recorded, and where the process of analysis draws on previous studies and involves intense reflection, including the critical assessment of competing interpretations. The experience of Kelly in researching a city centre youth work project illustrates such a commitment and its dangers. Similarly, much activity in public settings is fleeting and transient. For instance, later in the fieldwork, when Sara was reading the school newsletter in December 1997, she turned to me and exclaimed: Miss! In their interactions with emotionally disturbed children, they attempted to establish effective bonds modelled after the parent-child bond. In other words, rather than having a single narrative or a single authorial viewpoint, ethnographic texts would have more variegated textures, combining different kinds of writing style, and shifting viewpoint. Again, though, the location of interviews is something which the ethnographer may not be able to control. And, sometimes, given the nature of the research, it may be difficult to distance oneself from such labels. 122 Thomas, W.L. In their original formulation of grounded theory, Glaser and Strauss (1967) commended the creative use of written sources in the production and elaboration of concepts: it is necessary to approach the literature in a catholic and creative fashion. Documents in context In some settings it would be hard to conceive of anything approaching an ethnographic account without some attention to documentary material in use. They are also partly reflections of collective taste: in previous generations, the modernization of the home would have been a far more common goal than its restoration. Related Interests Ethnography Merton, R.K. (1972) Insiders and outsiders: a chapter in the sociology of knowledge, American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1: 947. In other words, indeterminacy and uncertainty should for the most part be resolved by ethnographers in favour of the interests of research, given that this is their primary task. 4, London: Sage. socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/1/4/lf.html Lee, R.M. For example, Pieke (1995) recounts how, five months into his fieldwork in Beijing, he witnessed the emergence of the 1989 Chinese Peoples Movement, which even at the time clearly represented an important research opportunity. Smigel, F. (1958) Interviewing a legal elite: the Wall Street lawyer, American Journal of Sociology, 64: 15964. Denzin, N.K. Similar considerations to those outlined above will also apply to larger-scale temporal dimensions, such as seasonal or annual cycles, and patterns of recruitment of new cohorts; although overall constraints of time and resource will obviously prove limiting here. One very well-known British ethnography that is flawed by such partial perspectives is Paul Williss (1977) study of working-class adolescent boys. Indeed, sometimes it may be necessary to insist that gatekeepers or sponsors recognize possible consequences of the research to avoid problems subsequently, as Geer notes from her research on American colleges: In colleges of high prestige, the researcher may be hampered in his negotiations because the administrators cannot imagine that anything harmful to the college could be discovered. In the late 1970s, when we started working together, there was only a small literature for us to draw on. Are some rules perceived as legitimate by some teachers and some pupils? Ryan (2006) discusses another aspect of the interviewers presentation of self: disclosure of personal information. Treseder, P. (2006) Diet as a social problem: an investigation of childrens and young peoples perspectives on nutrition and body image, unpublished PhD thesis, Open University, Milton Keynes. What are viable research problems depends, of course, on the resources available to the researcher; and what are relevant here are not just external resources like time and funds but also personal ones such as background knowledge, social characteristics and circumstances. In concrete terms, how can it make sense for the would-be ethnographer, who has carefully negotiated access to, say, a research laboratory, with all the reasonable undertakings and assurances that might be expected, to accept that the research can be brought to a complete halt if one person decides to withdraw? This process of progressive focusing means that the collection of data must be guided by the developing clarification of topics for inquiry. Burgess, R.G. In this respect, ethnographers are opposed to any approach which assumes that researchers can immediately know what people are doing and why, as well as those approaches which insist that we must start from some set of prior theoretical categories in describing peoples behaviour. As Anderson (2006) and Atkinson (2006b) have pointed out, the autoethnographic genre is not necessarily as new as its advocates and proponents claim. Whatever the origins of the inquiry, there is always a need to work the research problem up into a worthwhile and viable form. Shakespeare, P. (1994) Aspects of confused speech, unpublished manuscript, Open University, Milton Keynes. Crowley, D. and Reid, S.E. demands of recording the complexity of social action, the unpredictability of data collection activities). Images of various kinds are often part of the documents that are generated via organizational work, for example prospectuses for schools and universities, brochures of various kinds, the pictures (in print and online) that play a key role in the buying and selling of houses, etc. Such opportunistic research (Riemer 1977) also includes situations where sudden events provide the chance of studying history-in-the-making or unusual circumstances. Most ethnographers, however, must organize leaving the field, and this is not always a straightforward matter. For example, this technology allows the integration of audio and visual materials with written text. Sometimes, ethnographers find it necessary to formulate new terms to capture and characterize observer-identified types. Ethnography: principles, practice and potential Ethnography is a methodology that is gaining popularity in nursing and healthcare research. When that failed, he asked me if I knew anyone who might be willing to come to his apartment to help him program his computer to analyze bank accounts in embezzlement cases. However, it is by no means unusual in lacking a single, clearly defined meaning; the same is true of many other methodological labels. (Bohannon 1981: 45) Starting from a view centred on arguments about disorganization or dislocation, Bohannon and his research team came to reformulate their research in terms of adaptation. (eds) (2002) Socialist Spaces: Sites of Everyday Life in the Eastern Bloc, Oxford: Berg. . (Shils 1959: 137) Even Becker, whose views differ sharply from those of Shils, argues that one should refrain from publishing anything that will cause embarrassment or distress to the people studied if it is not central to the research or if its importance does not outweigh such consequences (Becker 1964b: 284). In short, Lever (1981: 205) proposes that abstract or unconditional inquiries yield responses that more closely correspond to a persons perceptions of social norms than inquiries of a concrete or detailed nature. . (1991) Students of midwifery: Doing the obs and other coping strategies, Midwifery, 7: 11321. Often this is forced by the cost of using more remote sites and the limited resources available. (ed.) Speer, S.A. (2002) Natural and contrived data: a sustainable distinction?, Discourse Studies, 4, 4: 51125. It was very clear to us that the nudity and perceived seductiveness of the stripper, and the general permissiveness of the setting, had interfered with our role as researchers. Sensitizing concepts must be turned into something more like definitive concepts.8 We should note that the links involved here are functional ones: what serves as concept and what as indicator will vary on different occasions. But this must be done on the basis of a realistic view of human relations, not an idealized one; and there will be conflicting indications, difficult judgements, and probably disagreements. As many reviews of ethnography reveal, this is a variegated approach that is amenable to different emphases and nuances (see, for instance, Atkinson et al. They can be a source of sensitizing concepts (Blumer 1954): they can suggest distinctive ways in which their authors, or the people reported in them, organize their experiences, the sorts of imagery and situated vocabularies (Mills 1940) they employ, the routine events, and the troubles and reactions, they encounter. (1974) From conflict theory to conflict methodology: an emerging paradigm for sociology, Sociological Quarterly, 44, 1: 1528. Of course, visual data do not have to be created ex nihilo by ethnographers. Even the existence of a PhD thesis in a university library can sometimes cause problems, as Wolf discovered in the case of his research on outlaw bikers: A few years . Nor are we suggesting that researchers should be unconcerned about the effects of their work on the world. This group very quickly coined the name The Moorside Investigation Department (MID) for themselves and generated a sense of self-importance. The collection and use of visual materials has gained particular currency from the increasing influence of cultural analysis in the social sciences. The question of rapport applies in two senses, both of which may be glossed as issues of identification. We produce narratives based on the narratives of the social actors we have studied. You mean that it isnt that you dont have problems, but you take them up and talk them over before you write them up, is that it? The problems associated with data from official sources were important, and they related directly to classic problems of sociological analysis, such as the explanation of suicide (Douglas 1967; Atkinson 1978); but they were by no means unique. In fact, neither of these cases is entirely straightforward in their own terms. Moreover, in neither case does recognition of the role of imagination negate the fact that there are general strategies available. Furthermore, even later, once the research problem and strategy have been clarified, there are reasons why only limited information may be provided to participants. The underlying idea of hypertext is by no means novel. outside research, initially these problems seemed to be major stumbling blocks. Burgess (ed.) As we have already noted, the rise of cultural studies and the associated emphasis on material culture have given rise to a rich vein of sources and analytic 6 For a critical assessment of his argument, see Silverstein (2004). Digitally recording observations and interviews It is very easy to demonstrate the major differences in volume and detail between a permanent recording and an observers reconstruction of a strip of spoken action in fieldnotes. Otherwise there is a grave danger that the data collected will be misleading in important respects, and the researcher will be unable to engage in the strategic search for data that is essential to a reflexive approach. Lofland (1971: 1089) draws attention to the poignancy of this experience. Interpretation of texts, and by extension understanding of the social world too, could no longer be seen as a matter of capturing social meanings in their own terms; the accounts produced were regarded as constructions that inevitably reflected the socio-historical position and background assumptions of the researcher. The ethnographer of a great city like London or Chicago will find many literary themes and images to explore, as will the student of small towns and rural communities. In experiments the conduct of the experimenter is closely defined. Admittedly, this is a very particular sort of public setting, in that a good deal of what goes on may be disreputable and the behaviour in public correspondingly guarded. 86 Field relations Generally, though, in open research the ethnographer has some choice over whether or not to take on one of the existing roles in the field. (Rohner 1969: 38; quoted in Pelto and Pelto 1978: 243) As Pelto and Pelto remark: Most anthropologists today would be overjoyed at the prospect of observing a full-blown potlatch and would assume that crucially important structural and cultural data could be extracted from the details of the ceremony (1978: 243). (2006) The tradition of fieldwork, in D. Hobbs and R. Wright (eds) The Sage Handbook of Fieldwork, London: Sage. Prior, L. (1985) Making sense of mortality, Sociology of Health and Illness, 7, 2: 16790. Hammond (ed.) The identification of the general class of gatekeepers would then allow us to go on to ask some pertinent questions of a general nature. Similar personal accounts can be found in newspapers and magazines, or can be culled from radio and television documentaries and chat shows, or found on the web. Poignancy of this experience they attempted to establish effective bonds modelled after the parent-child bond relationships with. Eds ) ( 2002 ) Natural and contrived data: a sustainable distinction? Discourse... Naturalism claims it does IL: University of Chicago Press interactions with emotionally disturbed children, they attempted to effective... In researching a city centre youth work project illustrates such a commitment and its dangers this continues today emergency would... Idea of hypertext is by no means novel which may be glossed as issues identification... 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